by Jennifer Berkowitz

Reggae is a Jamaican musical style that is considered one of the world's last genuine folk music expressions. Reggae music has always been the voice of the Jamaican working class and therefore almost inextricable from its culture. The history of the music itself is a living record of response and revolution in Jamaica from the 1950's through today. Stylistically speaking, the distinguishing elements of the music most people now identify as Reggae is its inverted rhythms with off-beat syncopations: most Reggae is played in 4/4, but the second and fourth beats are the down-beats, whereas most pop-music stresses the first and third beats.

Although "Reggae" is now used to describe the general sound of Jamaican modern music, the term itself actually originated in the late 1960s. Over the course of recent history, Reggae has seemed to organically come into being, manifesting itself in different stages and styles, and drawing stylistic elements from wide influences such as American R&B, Afro-Caribbean, African, and folk music called Mento, which originated in Trinidad in the early 20th century by labor workers and draws from church music, work songs, and African drumming.

Although it remained a commonwealth of the British Empire, Jamaica became self-governing, and the music began to express the sentiment of the newly liberated masses. During this post-war era, American music was in demand in many parts of the world and Jamaica was no exception. Jamaican musicians replicated American R&B, but soon after with a new spin. The changing political climate of Jamaica prompted a new feeling of nationalism amongst the people, and the musical interpretation followed suit-the musicians mixed the classic New Orleans style of Rhythm and Blues with Mento. The synthesis of styles produced a unique flavor and thus, Ska music was born.

Stylistically, Ska had a faster tempo and a heavy horn section. The music carried an off-beat rhythm-the second and fourth beats were stressed by the drums while the guitar or piano hit the first and third beats in a syncopated Mento style. Additionally, Ska would gain a loyal following in the UK with mods and skinheads. Pioneers of Ska were the Skalites, Studio One Label with producer Clement "Coxsone" Dodd, guitarist Earnest Ranglin, Prince Buster and his guitarist Jah Jerry.

The change in political climate during the 1950s also spawned a shift in the way music was heard. Traditional big-band outfits became outmoded and booming sound systems emerged as the staple of the open-air discos in the ghettos of the Kingston. The new systems produced a sound like nothing else could at that time-loud and driving, the sound itself embodied the feeling of liberation. It was a new time and the people of Jamaica were freshly liberated. Huge lawn parties featuring the new sound systems drew country people into the cities to partake in this new post-war expression of life and freedom. The birth and popularity of sound systems proved to be one of the single most important moments in Jamaican music; not only would it shape the sound of the music itself, but it would be the dawn of a new dimension of commercialization of Jamaican music and rivaling record labels, producers, DJs and musicians surfaced.

During the 1960s Jamaican cities were filling up with youth who could not get jobs. The situation was desperate; many lived outside of the law and were excluded from society at large. They didn't share in the sentiments of the newly liberated masses and were considered outsiders. They formed gangs and created a world for themselves where they were accepted, calling themselves "rude boys". Like most underground youth, the rude boys were patrons of local music and agents of change and innovation. Enter the music that became known as "Rock Steady". The fast tempo and loudness of Ska was quieted, and a cooler, slower, and more soulful sound arrived. Instead of the drums providing the rhythm - as in Ska - it was the bass that took over that role, strumming only on the second and fourth beats while the guitar strummed on the first and third beats. With less noise, more romantic vocals could be heard. Guitarist, Lynn Taitt is credited with starting the Rock Steady style, and Duke Reid was the key producer.

Both Ska and Rock Steady laid the groundwork for Reggae music to emerge at the closing of the 1960s. The advances in studio technology played a major role in developing the Reggae sound as pioneering producers Lee "Scratch" Perry, Bunny Lee, and engineer "King Tubby" (Osborne Reddock) were the first to explore a more percussive approach to the melody. Obviously influenced by both Ska and Rock Steady, the new sound was faster than rock steady, but was tighter than Ska. This tighter and faster rhythm became known as "Reggae." Bob Marley also played a key role in developing this unique sound with guitarist Peter Tosh.

Around this same time "Dub" emerged when King Tubby discovered that newer versions of songs could be created by remixing and reconstructing the elements in a song. He would leave out portions of the vocals on the "dub plate" and became a leader in pushing DJing and remixing as an art form in itself. "Toasting" became a natural extension of Dub, as artists such as U-Roy started filling in vocals where Dub left spaces in the music. Toasting laid out groundwork for what eventually became rap music.

Pop Reggae would last a short time before the fierce rivalry between Jamaican political parties in the 1970s economically devastated the Jamaican working class. Once again, the people responded with music. Marley and the Wailers - with the help of Lee Perry - ushered in a new period of Reggae called "Roots Reggae" that was a response to the oppressive socio-economic situation. Groups like Burning Spear, Culture, and The Mighty Diamonds were also important Roots musicians. The general sound of Roots had a deeper rhythm and was slower to fit the lyrics, which spoke to oppression, suffering, politics, and, with the Rastafarian influence, spirituality.

Marley and The Wailers got signed to Island records in 1972 even though they had been in the scene for years. Jimmy Cliff also helped push Reggae onto the world's stage with the movie "The Harder They Came". Reggae was becoming a serious commodity and with the help of Island Records in 1972, Bob Marley was embraced by the world as the father of reggae and the ambassador of Rastafarianism.

At the same time, young black communities in the UK were growing their own new style of reggae music in the 1970s. "Lovers Rock" was nothing like Roots, instead it was smooth and soulful. It is one of the few cases where the UK reggae music style influenced Jamaica. Artists like Gregory Isaacs, Janet Kay and Maxi Priest were amongst the earliest and most well known.

When Marley died in the early 1980s, so did a lot of the political elements of Roots. Instead of lyrics focused on consciousness, Dancehall, Ragga, and Jungle styles moved in with the developments of digital music and set the tone for most of the Reggae in the 1980s. The music was characterized by electronically generated drum patters and lyrics that spoke to violence and sexuality. Leading producers were King Jammy and Junjo Lawes. Shabba Ranks, Beenie Man were leaders of Ragga.

Recently, there has been a reaction to popular reggae music as there is a return to what many consider the greatest time in reggae-roots. However, several artists are taking traditional reggae and utilizing the digital technology of today. Capleton and Buju Banton are two of the most well known.

Reggae is not the only gift that Jamaica has given to the world, but it is certainly one that - by far - has had the most impact globally.